The Fundamentals of Elementary Particle Physics

The concept of fundamental, indivisible particles goes back to the ancient Greeks (a concept known as atomism). In the 20th century, physicists began exploring the goings on at the smallest levels of matter, and among their most startling modern discoveries was the amount of different particles in the universe. Quantum physics predicts 18 types of elementary particles, and 16 have already been experimentally detected. Elementary particle physics aims to find the remaining particles. The Standard Model The Standard Model of particle physics, which classifies elementary particles into several groups, is at the core of modern physics. In this model, three of the four fundamental forces of physics are described, along with gauge bosons, the particles that mediate those forces. Although gravity isnt technically included in the Standard Model, theoretical physicists are working to extend the model to include and predict a quantum theory of gravity. If theres one thing that particle physicists seem to enjoy, its dividing up particles into groups. Elementary particles are the smallest constituents of matter and energy. As far as scientists can tell, they dont seem to be made from combinations of any smaller particles. Breaking Down Matter and Forces All elementary particles in physics are classified as either fermions or bosons. Quantum physics demonstrates that particles may have an intrinsic non-zero spin, or angular momentum, associated with them. A fermion (named after Enrico Fermi) is a particle with a half-integer spin, while a boson (named after Satyendra Nath Bose) is a particle with an whole number or integer spin. These spins result in different mathematical applications in particular situations. Simple mathematics of adding integers and half-integers shows the following: Combining an odd number of fermions results in a fermion because the total spin will still be a half-integer value.Combining an even number of fermions results in a boson because the total spin results in an integer value. Fermions Fermions have a particle spin equal to a half-integer value (-1/2, 1/2, 3/2, etc.). These particles make up the matter that we observe in our universe. The two basic constituents of matter are quarks and leptons. Both of these subatomic particles are fermions, so all bosons are created from an even combination of these particles. Quarks are the class of fermion that make up hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. Quarks are fundamental particles which interact through all four of the fundamental forces of physics: gravity, electromagnetism, weak interaction, and strong interaction. Quarks always exist in combination to form subatomic particles known as hadrons. There are six distinct types of quark: Bottom QuarkStrange QuarkDown QuarkTop QuarkCharm QuarkUp Quark Leptons are a type of fundamental particle that do not experience strong interaction. There are six lepton varieties: ElectronElectron NeutrinoMuonMuon NeutrinoTauTau Neutrino Each of the three flavors of lepton (electron, muon, and tau) is composed of a weak doublet, the aforementioned particle along with a virtually massless neutral particle called a neutrino. Thus, the electron lepton is the weak doublet of electron and electron-neutrino. Bosons Bosons have a particle spin equal to an integer (whole numbers like 1, 2, 3, and so on). These particles mediate the fundamental forces of physics under quantum field theories. PhotonW BosonZ BosonGluonHiggs BosonGraviton Composite Particles Hadrons are particles made up of multiple bound together quarks such that their spin is a half-integer value. Hadrons are divided into mesons (which are bosons) and baryons (which are fermions). MesonsBaryonsNucleonsHyperons: short-lived particles composed of strange quarks Molecules are complex structures composed of multiple atoms bonded together. The basic chemical building block of matter, atoms are composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are nucleons, the type of baryon which together form the composite particle that is the nucleus of an atom. The study of how atoms bond together to form various molecular structures is the foundation of modern chemistry. Particle Classification It can be hard to keep all the names straight in particle physics, so it might be helpful to think of the animal world, where such structured naming might be more familiar and intuitive. Humans are primates, mammals, and also vertebrates. Similarly, protons are nucleons, baryons, hadrons, and also fermions. The unfortunate difference is that the terms tend to sound similar to each other. Confusing bosons and baryons, for example, is far easier than confusing primates and invertebrates. The only way to really keep these different particle groups separate is to just carefully study them and try to be careful about which name is being used. Edited by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.

Reading Free Vocational Interest Inventory - 1039 Words

Reading Free Vocational Interest Inventory: 2 The first Reading Free Vocational Interest Inventory, R-FVII, was developed in published by the American Association on Mental Deficiency in 1975, and later revised in 1981 (Becker, 1981; Becker and Becker, 1983). The most updated version, R-FVII: 2, was developed by Ralph Becker and published by Elbern Publications in the year 2000 (Becker, 2000). Description of the Instrument This inventory was created to measure vocational interests of individuals with disabilities, ages 12-62, in a reading-free format. This test can be used with people who may have physical, intellectual, and or specific learning disabilities. This inventory is also appropriate for individuals whose first language is not English, those who have a mental health diagnosis, or economically disadvantaged populations. The test consists of a series of 55 sets of three drawings each illustrating different job tasks; the individual chooses the most preferred activity in each set. This inventory can be used in multiple settings such as junior and senior high schools, vocational and career training programs, career counseling centers, colleges and can be used by various qualified professionals for example psychologists, counselors, teachers, and paraprofessionals. Scales The test measures 11 different vocational interests areas that fall within 5 cluster dimensions. The 11 vocational interest areas are: †¢ Automotive interest †¢ Building Trades interest †¢Show MoreRelatedThe Neo Pi R, By Paul T. Costa Jr.1772 Words   |  8 Pagesn.d). General Information Test Background and Costs The NEO-PI-R (Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory- Revised) was published in 1992 by Paul T. Costa Jr., PhD and Robert R. McCrae, PhD under the Psychological Assessment Resources (Costa McCrae, 1992). 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Richard The Lion Hearted Essay Research Paper Example For Students

Richard The Lion Hearted Essay Research Paper Born: 8th September 1157 at Beaumont Palace, Oxford Died: 6th April 1199 at Chalus, Aquitaine Buried: Fontevrault Abbey, Anjou Parents: Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine Siblings: William, Henry, Matilda, Geoffrey, Eleanor, Joan John Crowned: 2nd September 1189 at Westminster Abbey, Middlesex Married: 12th May 1191 at Limassol, Cyprus Spouse: Berengia daughter of Sancho VI, King of Navarre Offspring: None Richard Plantagenet (also known as Richard the lion hearted) was born onSeptember 8th in the year 1157 CE. Although born in Oxfordshire England,Richard was a child of Aquitaine a part of Southern France. His language wasnot English and throughout his life he spoke little of it. He had four brothers and three sisters, the first of which died at a youngage. Of the remainder, Henry was named heir to the English throne, Richardwas to succeed his mothers Aquitane and Geoffrey was to inherit Brittany. John was the poorest to fair out receiving nothing from his father. It isthis action that gave him the name John Lackland. At a young age of twelve, Richard pledged homage to the King of France forlands of his. At the age of fourteen, Richard was named the Duke of Aquitanein the church of St. Hillaire at Poitiers (one of the lands made homage tothe French King.) Henrys sons, who had been given lands but no real powerrevolted against their King father aided by their mother. In retaliation KingHenry had Eleanor jailed. She remained there for many years. Richards Mother EleanorEleanor was the daughter and heiress of William X, duke of Aquitaine andcount of Poitiers, who possessed one of the largest domains inFrancelarger, in fact, than those held by the French king. Upon Williamsdeath in 1137 she inherited the Duchy of Aquitaine and in July 1137 marriedthe heir to the French throne, who succeeded his father, Louis VI, thefollowing month. Eleanor became queen of France, a title she held for thenext 15 years. Beautiful, capricious, and adored by Louis, Eleanor exertedconsiderable influence over him, often goading him into undertaking perilousventures. From 1147 to 1149 Eleanor accompanied Louis on the Second Crusade to protectthe fragile Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, founded after the First Crusade only50 years before, from Turkish assault. Eleanors conduct during thisexpedition, especially at the court of her Uncle Raymond of Poitiers atAntioch, aroused Louiss jealousy and marked the beginning of theirestrangement. After their return to France and a short-lived reconciliation,their marriage was annulled in March 1152. According to feudal customs,Eleanor then regained possession of Aquitaine, and two months later shemarried the grandson of Henry I of England, Henry Plantagenet, and count ofAnjou and duke of Normandy. In 1154 he became, as Henry II, king of England,with the result that England, Normandy, and the west of France were unitedunder his rule. Eleanor had only two daughters by Louis VII; to her newhusband she bore five sons and three daughters. The sons were William, whodied at the age of three; Henry; Richard, the Lion-Hea rt; Geoffrey, duke ofBrittany; and John, surnamed Lackland until, having outlived all hisbrothers, he inherited, in 1199, the crown of England. The daughters wereMatilda, who married Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria; Eleanor, whomarried Alfonso VIII, king of Castile; and Joan, who married successivelyWilliam II, king of Sicily, and Raymond VI, count of Toulouse. Eleanor wouldwell have deserved to be named the grandmother of Europe.During her childbearing years, she participated actively in theadministration of the realm and even more actively in the management of herown domains. She was instrumental in turning the court of Poitiers, thenfrequented by the most famous troubadours of the time, into a centre ofpoetry and a model of courtly life and manners. She was the great patron ofthe two dominant poetic movements of the time. The courtly love tradition,conveyed in the romantic songs of the troubadours, and the historical matirede Bretagne, or legends of Britanny, which ori ginated in Celtic traditions. The Effects of Stress, Alcohol Outcome Expectancie Essay Rumors ran quickly throughout England over the missing king. There is alegend that the troubadour Blondel heard his king singing in a castle andresponded with a song that the both of them were sure to know. Whether trueor not the fact remains that two Abbots were soon dispatched to journey forhim through the network of the church. Even Eleanor, Richards mother wroteto the Pope for assistance in the matter. Richard was found and soon a ransomwas set for his return to England. The sum was 150,000 marks and amount equalto three years of annual income and weighing at three tons in silver. Return Of the King Richard returned to England receiving a heroes welcome. He forgave hisbrother John, by saying he was manipulated by cunning people and vowed topunish them and not his brother. Unfortunately for the King he returned to aland in financial troubles. The cost of the Crusade and his large ransom hadtapped out the finances of the land. This monetary trouble was to destroy himfor his remaining five-year reign. He created a new great seal as a means toraise funds and made void all documents signed with the old. Death of A King For such a brave and noble King Richards death came about in a ratherstrange way. In Chalus, Aquitane, a peasant plowing his fields came upon atreasure. This treasure consisted of some gold statues and coins. Richard inturn claimed the treasure from the lord, who refused. This prompted Richardto siege the village. During the siege Richard was riding close to the castle without theprotection of full armor. He spotted an archer with bow in hand on the wallaiming a shot at him. It is said Richard paused to applaud the Bowman. He wasstruck in the shoulder with the arrow and refused treatment for his wound. Infection set in and Richard the first, the Lionheart died on April the 6th1199. He was buried in the Fontvraud Abbey in Anjou France. Bibliography Richard IBibliography K. Norgate, Richard the Lion Heart (1924, reprinted 1969),F.M. Powicke, The Loss of Normandy, 1189-1204, 2nd ed. (1961),L. Landon, Itinerary of King Richard I (1935), S. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, vol. 3 (1954), Amy Kelly, Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings (1950),